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Males of some spiders and insects present valuable ‘wedding gifts’ to females before mating. Usually, these gifts are freshly caught prey that female would eat during copulation. Sometimes males cheat and bring to their girlfriends inedible objects such as petals, seeds and even their own feces. In order to increase the effect and distract the female for longer time, male spiders wrap the gift in a bright fluffy cocoon of spider web. Female spiders Pisaura mirabilis are equally willing to mate with males who offer either edible or symbolic gifts, while rejecting those that have no gifts at all. In case if the female received an inedible gift, she interrupts intercourse sooner, which reduces the reproductive success of the ‘cheating’ males: they have less time and give less sperm to the female than the rivals who have spent time and effort in obtaining nutritious gifts. Apparently, this explains the fact that the majority of male P. mirabilis spiders still prefer to give edible gifts to females. Sometimes males-cheaters temporarily win the race and the cheap gifts become widespread. When the females win the race, more expensive, hard to find gifts are in fashion in the population of spiders.

Like many people, females of P. mirabilis apparently believe that the most valuable gift is the one in a good packaging. The packaging has three useful functions for the male. First, the packaging itself attracts and predisposes the female. Second, the packaging itself does not allow a female to see immediately what’s inside, that gives the male additional time to approach female and start intercourse. Third, it is much easier for a male to get hold of the gift wrapped in a web as females often try to prematurely terminate copulation and get away before the male can fill special seminal receptacle on the bottom side of the abdomen of female. Male spiders are smaller and weaker than females and cannot retain them by force, so they use tricks to over-smart females. When the female interrupts the copulation and tries to escape, the male spreads legs around the wrapped gift and pretends to be dead. The female cannot shake off the “dead” boyfriend hanging on the gift, so she drags him along. As soon as she starts to eat the meal again, the male “wakes up” and resumes copulation.

A gene called Prdm6 was found long time ago as a gene involved in recombination, the process of crossing chromosomes and exchanging DNA regions between paternal and maternal chromosomes in the gonads. The process takes place only during maturation of reproductive cells – spermatozoids and oocytes. The DNA shuffling is the reason why each organism is unique. So far, DNA recombination was not associated with the creation of new species. Scientists found that the protein Prdm6 has several so-called Zn-fingers that are encoded by short DNA repeats called satellite DNA. As satellite DNA is located in hot-spots of DNA recombination, it is frequently mutated and repaired. As the result, Prdm6 protein gets more or less repeats of its Zn-fingers. It appears that the chromosomes that have different variants of the gene cannot properly pair and exchange genetic information during gametogenesis. All animal species have homologous Prdm6 genes. Certain lines of laboratory mice that express different variants of Prdm6 protein cannot produce fertile offspring. Scientists found that different populations of humans also produce Prdm6 proteins with different number of Zn-fingers. It is conceivable that people with certain variants of Prdm6 proteins may not produce fertile children and may develop into a new human species. This process will require selective pressure, either natural or artificial, and many years to develop true new Homo species.

Genetic modification
Genetic modification is the change of the genes of a living organism such as a plant or animal using modern techniques of biotechnology. DNA sequencing of entire genomes has been instrumental in the development of new genetically modified animals.

Purpose of genetic modification of animals
The main purposes of using genetic modification of animals are:

improving food-producing animals and agricultural plants
Development of new of plants and animals through natural selection and evolution is a slow process that takes millions of years. Ancient people learned to improve the speed through artificial selection. As the demand for food increases with world’s population growing, genetic modification of animals and plants became the most efficient way of increasing agricultural production. Genetically modified animals and plants developed in a matter of a few decades produce more and better milk, meat, fiber, they became more resistant to diseases and droughts.

development of treatments for human disease
With genetic modification of animals, production of certain important human proteins such as insulin has become a reality. Scientists have seen success with the use of some animal tissues, bones, and joints in humans. Research continues in the field of skin and organ tissue transplantations. Pigs are commonly used in this research because of their similarities to humans. Pigs producing ‘humanized’ skin, for example, can be used as a source for skin restoration in humans. Animals such as mice are genetically modified to help understanding and developing treatments for human and animal diseases.

production of pharmaceuticals
Genetic engineering has allowed production of certain hormones (insulin, human growth hormone, bovine and porcine somatotropin and other). Current research has shown the possibility of genetically modifying sheep or cattle to produce human proteins in their milk.

Benefits
Genetic modification of animals has shown several benefits. These include increased resistance to disease and parasites, increased productivity and improved hardiness to weather factors. Other benefits involve animal products, such as increased yields of meat, eggs, and milk.

Cloning animals
There are two main types of animal cloning: reproductive cloning and cloning through recombinant DNA technology

Reproductive cloning is a common process very well known for creating an exact genetic match of an animal. In 1996, Dolly the sheep was produced by reproductive cloning and was the first animal to be cloned from adult DNA. Since Dolly, advancements have been made in the process of cloning, and several other animals have been cloned. The reproductive cloning process begins with the transfer of genetic material from the nucleus of a donor adult cell to an egg whose nucleus has been removed. The egg is stimulated with chemicals or electrical current to promote cell division. As the cloned embryo divides in a test tube and reaches a suitable developmental stage, it is transplanted into a female host. The female carries the cloned embryo until birth.

Recombinant DNA (rDNA) technology is the process that occurs when fragments of DNA from two different species are joined in vitro to form a single DNA molecule. Usually, the DNA from one species is incorporated in a plasmid that is a circular DNA replicating independently on the bacterial genomic DNA. A plasmid is then amplified inside the bacteria, isolated and inserted into the genome of embryonic stem (ES) cells to be altered, allowing the DNA of two different organisms to be combined in a single cell. Then the cell is injected into an embryo at early stage of development and the embryo is then implanted in foster mother uterus to produce a chimeric transgenic animal.

Transgenic animals
A transgenic animal is an animal that has incorporated a foreign gene into its cells. The animal can pass this transgene (altered gene) on to its offspring. Every cell within the transgenic animal contains a copy of this transgene. Several different methods can be used to produce transgenic animals.

Microinjection is the most common technique used to produce transgenic animals. Injecting DNA into a cell using a fine-diameter glass needle and a microscope constitutes microinjection. During this operation, the chosen gene from the same or a different species is directly microinjected into the ovum. The injected DNA integrates randomly with nuclear DNA and its expression is possible only when the foreign DNA is attached to a suitable promoter DNA sequence. There are many examples where different types of animal cells have been microinjected and successfully transferred.

Once a manipulated fertilized ovum develops to a specific embryonic phase, it is transferred to the oviduct of a recipient female. The embryo will develop just as a normal embryo and is typically carried full term.

Marker gene is a gene that helps easily identify animals which successfully incorporated transgene. With the use of marker genes, it is possible not only to determine whether a transgenic animal has received the desired DNA but also whether the genes in the DNA are being expressed. The genetic markers help identifying the location of incorporated DNA in the host genome. The expression of a marker gene can be visualised with staining selected tissues or whole embryos. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) followed by gel electrophoresis is a technique of choice due to its speed and sensitivity.

Improving domestic animals
Currently the U.S. Meat Animal Research Center (USMARC) has developed DNA markers to identify all cattle in the United States. This method allows improved animal traceability and verification of disease sources. DNA testing also allows producers to base their management and selection process on genetic potential of identified animals.

DNA testing can determine the presence of certain traits and proteins. A common method used in the beef cattle industry involves the presence of the tenderness or marbling genes. This information allows producers to enhance the production of tender meat and meat with optimal marbling. It also allows producers to produce a consistent product.

Xenotransplantation
Xenotransplantation is the transfer of living cells, tissues, or whole organs from one species to another. People who need a kidney for transplantation often chose to use a pig kidney even if that organ was obtained from a genetically engineered pig.

Summary:
With the new technology of genome sequencing and mapping, genetic modification holds the potential for improvements in livestock. The main purposes for using genetic modification of animals are increased production of food-producing animals, treatments for human disease, and production of pharmaceuticals.

Did you know?
1. Identical twins are clones that occurred naturally.
2. Many animal cloning technologies are used for clinical reproductive procedures.
3. The process of cloning in the lab is a very complex procedure.

Checking what you have learned
1. What are the main purposes of genetic modification in animals?
2. What is a transgenic animal?
3. What are the steps involved in cloning an animal through reproductive cloning?
4. What are the steps involved in producing a transgenic animal?
5. How are marker genes used?

Probably, the greatest potential for stem cells is in their use to treat degenerative diseases and major traumatic injuries, which may result in a significant improvement in the quality and length of life for affected patients. Stem cells could be developed into healthy versions of the cells that have been lost or that are not functioning correctly in that particular disease or condition. These stem cells would then serve as renewable sources for the cells and tissue needed for transplantation into patients. The ability to replace defective or damaged cells through cell replacement therapy could allow the treatment of injuries and various genetic and degenerative conditions. The list of diseases that may be good candidates for stem cell repair include muscular dystrophies, retinal degeneration, Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, arthritis, diabetes, spinal cord injuries, and blood disorders such as hemophilia, but many other diseases may turn out to be excellent targets as well. Recently, cloning techniques have been developed that allow scientists to develop stem cells that can be used to better understand specific diseases with the goal of using this knowledge to develop better treatments for those diseases. In the groundbreaking procedure, called “nuclear transfer,” the genetic material (DNA) of an unfertilized egg is removed and replaced with the genetic material from a single skin cell of a patient with a severe disease to permit the generation of stem cells for further study of the disease.

This cloning method was used to create the famous sheep Dolly in 1996. Experts believe that with this technique, they are able to create cells, organs, tissues, which will be used to treat patients. If so, organs for transplantation will be readily available and it will become possible to cure many diseases, save and prolong lives of many people.

In vitro fertilization (IVF) is a common treatment option for many couples seeking relief from infertility. In this case, conception, or fertilization of an egg (oocyte) with a spermatozoa takes place in a test tube in laboratory settings and the resulting fertilized oocyte is then implanted after a few cell cycles in the uterus. It is a standard practice in fertility clinics to fertilize and cryopreserve more eggs than women are willing to carry to term. Most couples who have surplus of frozen embryos choose to discard them after completing their family, but many couples do not feel comfortable with this option and instead choose to donate them to stem cell research so that these embryos can be utilized to help others. Fertility centers then provide these fertilized human eggs to stem cell research laboratories where embryonic stem cells are isolated from these embryos cultured for approximately a week. These stem cells continue to grow in vitro and divide for long periods of time and are used for further studies such as production of specialized human cells and tissues. For example, a scientist might place the stem cells in conditions that cause them to form neural (brain) cells with the goal of someday using them as a source of cells to treat Alzheimer’s disease. Sheets of artificial skin may be produced from embryonic stem cells and used to treat severe burns.

Woodpecker is much smarter than we are. Yes, he beats his head against a tree, but he does it so very successfully. His goal is always realistic – he never tries to split the tree in half and in a single motion, as many of us do. Woodpecker stays focused. He never knocks at all sides of a tree at the same time. He focuses his effort on a single point, slowly getting to his worm. What we always want is not a worm but at least a snake. We want to find the snake under lose leaves sprinkled on the ground leaving hard to reach places unchecked.

2. The second lesson can be learned from the success of the fish. It’s called “stream lesson”.

The fish always swims against the current and rarely downstream. This is crazy! Right? Why would they complicate their lives when they could use the force of the current to move down the stream? In fact, moving upstream allows more water to pass through their gills. It brings more oxygen and food. So life of the fish swimming upstream is several times richer. In contrast to the fish, we always try to go with the flow or ‘swim in the stagnant water’. As a result, instead of 40 years of experience, we repeat a one-year experience 40 times. We do not want to leave our comfort zone, and then wonder why our life was so dull and unsuccessful. We want to win the lottery of life, not even buying a lottery ticket.

3. The third lesson of success you can learn from lion cubs. This lesson is called – “soil you face with blood”.

Lion cubs know how to learn. And they do not learn from textbooks but rather from the older, more experienced lions. They know exactly – in order to learn how to hunt, they should soil their muzzles with blood. We are even afraid to soil our hands. We learn hunting as we sit in a classroom and look at the board dressed teacher-hare. Or even worse, – we lock ourselves in a room and study ourselves, but when it comes to real hunting, we do not know how, we are afraid of the smell of blood.

4. We can learn the fourth lesson of success from the dogs. This skill is called “wiggle your social tail first”.

In the 21st century, is not important what you do yourself. What is important is how efficiently you motivate others. A perfect example of this is a dog. The dog does not think: “First, you bring me home, feed and wash me and then I’ll wiggle my tail and play with you.” No! Dog first shows his good feelings, and only then gets what it wants in return. Dogs do not force you to do anything, they make you want to do everything for them.

5. Snake gives us the fifth lesson of success. The lesson is called “do not whine”.

Snake does not think: “I have no arms or legs, I have poor eyesight, I was not born in this country, and my parents did not care about me since I had hatched.” Snake efficiently uses what it has. We even are scared of the “disabled animal”. If snake does not like something, it just changes the skin and creeps forward without regrets.

The root of the change is not in the drug per se, as reported by McLean, but in a mystical feeling and a state that people often experience after using psilocybin. These deep feelings of transcendence have almost nothing in common and are not comparable to those produced by any other drugs and chemicals. “Years later, people still claim that these experiences were the most profound experiences of their lives” – said McLean.

Hallucinogens are usually associated with counterculture of the 1960s, with the spread of LSD (a strong chemical that changes the state of human consciousness) and other illegal narcotics. Therefore, it became difficult in recent decades to systematically study the effects of hallucinogens, to get permission to give them to volunteers.

Today, scientists at MAPS (Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies), a nonprofit research institute in Massachusetts, are studying the possibility of using a hallucinogen MDMA (ecstasy), for the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. LSD and psilocybin are also investigated as a possible treatment for anxiety. Psilocybin is also being studied as a potential therapeutic drug to treat anxiety and depression in cancer patients and to combat nicotine addiction.

Currently, MacLean and her colleagues are studying effects of psilocybin on 50 people. All volunteers who took the drug for the first time reported hallucinations. Before taking medication, participants’ personalities were assessed for using different psychological tests. They also passed same tests again in a few weeks and 14 months after the treatment with a high dose of the drug causing hallucinations.

The results, published last year in September issue of the “Journal of Psychopharmacology” and showed that “openness” increased markedly under the influence of psilocybin while other aspects of personality remained the same. The effect was particularly strong in those people who reported that they experienced “mystical” hallucinations. These mystical experiences have been associated with a deep sense of connectedness with feelings of joy, reverence and peace.

2. You will no longer have to create and remember multiple passwords for different systems of identification. Biometric information – facial features, retinal scans or voice recognition will replace passwords.

3. Reading the thoughts will become a reality. Your brain can be connected to a computer or smartphone. You will just have to think of a wish and it will come true. The power of thought will point the cursor and click to a specific point on the computer screen. During the next five years, we will see such devices in the entertainment and gaming industries. In addition to entertainment, this technology can help in uncovering the mysteries of the brain and rehabilitation of paralyzed patients.

4. Mobile technology will become so common that by 2016 it will eliminate the “digital frontier” between the rich and the poor.

5. Over time, spam filters will become so accurate that unsolicited emails will no longer bother you.

Despite the great demand of the spider fibers and numerous benefits it can offer, it is impossible to farm spiders because of territorialism and cannibalism between spiders. To get around this problem, recombinant spider silk proteins have been produced in other hosts such as bacteria, yeast, baculovirus, mammalian cells, and transgenic plants and animals. However, all these approaches are expensive, hard to scale up, and lack natural spinning of silk fibers. Silkworms represent the perfect host for spider silk production. Their silk glands naturally produce silk fibers. Gene encoding natural silk protein can be replaced with recombinant spider silk protein that can be targeted to the silk gland using a tissue-specific promoter.

In the attempt to generate transgenic silkworms, scientists created a vector that encodes the synthetic spider silk protein A2S814 and targeted its expression to the silkworm’s silk gland as well as an enhanced GFP (EGFP) tag for visual monitoring of the recombinant protein expression. They injected the vector into eggs and selected transformed larvae using EGFP as a marker of A2S814 expression.

Further analyses of silk extracted from the cocoons confirmed that chimeric silkworm/spidersilk proteins expressed by the transgenic larvae and incorporated into chimeric silk fibers. Importantly, the composite fibers were on average stronger than the parental fibers and more extensible than parental silkworm and native dragline spider silk. “These results demonstrate that the chimeric silkworm/spider silk proteins can significantly improve the mechanical properties of composite silk fibers.

Australian National University presented novel perspective on the issue and suggested that a layer of the biosphere might be present beneath the surface of the red planet. Probes exploring Mars analyse only thin surface layers of martian soil. Charlie Laynuivera and his team suggested a new approach of studying Martian life. They studied temperature and pressure inside the Earth as a function of depth and made a prediction on what temperature and pressure might be inside Mars. The study produced impressive results: it turned out that only 1% of all the Earth’s mass may be considered compatible with life as we know it. On Mars, however, the figure is 3%! The life-permitting area on Mars is certainly not on the surface of this planet, which is frozen and dry, as water evaporates in the absence of a sufficient layer of the atmosphere. As scientists explain, the most life-permitting conditions on Mars are located approximately 30km below the surface where there is enough geothermal heat and pressure that makes existence of liquid water there possible.