Researchers in Spain have found that many of the individuals claiming to see the aura of people – traditionally called “healers” or “quacks” – actually present the neuropsychological phenomenon known as “synesthesia” (specifically, “emotional synesthesia”). This might be a scientific explanation of their alleged extrasensory abilities. In synesthetes, the brain regions responsible for the processing of each type of sensory stimuli are intensely interconnected. This way, synesthetes can see or taste a sound, feel a taste, or associate people with a particular color or thought.

The study was conducted by the University of Granada Department of Experimental Psychology and has been published in the prestigious journal Consciousness and Cognition. This is the first time that a scientific explanation is provided on the esoteric phenomenon of the aura, a supposed energy field of luminous radiation surrounding a person as a halo, which is imperceptible to most human beings.

In neurological terms, synesthesia is due to unusual cross-wiring in the brain of some people (synesthetes); in other words, synesthetes present more synaptic connections than “normal” people. These extra connections cause them to automatically establish associations between brain areas that are not normally interconnected. Many healers claiming to see the aura of people might have this condition.

The case of the “Santón de Baza”
The University of Granada researchers remark that “not all healers are synesthetes, but there is a higher prevalence of this phenomenon among them. The same occurs among painters and artists, for example”. To carry out this study, the researchers interviewed some synesthetes as the healer from Granada “Esteban Sánchez Casas”, known as “El Santón de Baza”.

Many people attribute “paranormal powers” to El Santón, such as his ability to see the aura of people “but, in fact, it is a clear case of synesthesia”, the researchers explain. El Santón presents face-color synesthesia (the brain region responsible for face recognition is associated with the color-processing region); touch-mirror synesthesia (when the synesthete observes a person who is being touched or is experiencing pain, s/he experiences the same); high empathy (the ability to feel what other person is feeling), and schizotypy (certain personality traits in healthy people involving slight paranoia and delusions). “These capacities make synesthetes have the ability to make people feel understood, and provide them with special emotion and pain reading skills”, the researchers explain.

In the light of the results obtained, the researchers remark the significant “placebo effect” that healers have on people, “though some healers really have the ability to see people’s auras and feel the pain in others due to synesthesia”. Some healers “have abilities and attitudes that make them believe in their ability to heal other people, but it is actually a case of self-deception, as synesthesia is not an extrasensory power, but a subjective and ‘adorned’ perception of reality”, the researchers state.

New research proved that resveratrol, a chemical present in red wine, has anti-aging properties.

Resveratrol was always thought to have health benefits, but the exact mechanism of that effect was never clearly understood.

Understanding how resveratrol works would open a possibility of developing an anti-aging drug. Recently, scientists showed that mice lacking the longevity gene known as SIRT1, don’t seem to benefit from resveratrol.

SIRT1 is one of many genes activated by resveratrol and scientists struggled to find the principal gene that is responsible for increased life span. SITR1 knock-out mice didn’t survive, therefore Sinclair and his colleagues created conditional knockout of SITR1 and fed them with resveratrol. The scientists then proved that mice with normal SIRT1 gene lived as long as those with SITR1 deficiency.

The dosage of resveratrol seems to be the critical aspect, with high doses starting to activate other genes. Thus, it initially targets SIRT1, while at higher doses acting on other genes. Animals lacking that gene obtained no benefit.

The findings which are published in the May issue of the Cell Press journal Cell Metabolism offer the first definitive proof of the absolute link between the anti-aging properties of resveratrol and the SIRT1 gene. Researchers can now focus on small molecule compounds that act on the enzymatic activity of the SIRT1 gene. The promising new approach could produce many new drugs that combat aging, including diseases like dementia, Alzheimer’s, stroke and others.

Scientists have found a new method for producing genetically modified animals. Transgenic animals produced using this method can be used for scientific research and to produce new breeds of domestic animals. The method relies on recently created haploid embryonic stem cells (haESCs) instead of diploid ESCs. Such haploid stem cells are similar to haploid sperm cells. Researches can culture and manipulate haESCs in vitro as they do with regular diploid ES cells.

Not only will the technique make it easier to produce genetically modified mice and other animals, but it may also enable genetic modification of animals that can’t be modified by conventional techniques. The technique might even be used in assisted human reproduction for those couples affected by genetic disease.

The current procedure to generate genetically modified animals is tedious and very inefficient. Now scientists can generate haploid embryonic stem cells and produce heterozygote animals by simply injecting those in vitro manipulated haESCs into unfertilized oocytes. This approach eliminates excessive breeding and allows getting 100% of F1 animals carrying new genes in germ line cells.

Currently, genetically modified mice are made from diploid embryonic stem cells carrying two copies of every gene. These diploid embryonic cells can be cultured in vitro and genetically manipulated and then injected into blastocysts early in development to produce chimeras, animals whose tissues are made up of cells derived from both the blastocyst and from the modified ES cells. As the modified cells are randomly incorporated into the cells of blastocyst, there is a chance that they will give rise to egg and sperm cells carrying genetic modification that can be passed on to future generations. But it’s a slow and uncertain process.

Haploid embryonic stem cells (haESCs) can be produced by first removing the nucleus from immature eggs (oocytes) and then injecting them with sperm. These cells are amenable to gene manipulations and supporting transmission of genetic information to offspring. These haploid cells open new avenues for the generation of genetically modified animals. The next challenge is to improve the sperm-like features of the haESCs by optimizing their makeup without otherwise compromising them.

The new method might also lead to genetic modification of animals, such as monkeys or humans, that have been off limits because they don’t support the production of chimeras.

As for human reproduction, right now the haESCs are clearly not as good as sperm for the purposes of in vitro fertilization, but they could someday have advantages. A similar technique might be one day used to correct genetic disease in germ cells in humans to have a healthy baby for parents.

Even though Charles Darvin titled his famous book ‘The Origin of Species’, he considered the mechanism of new species’ origin a great mystery. Even now, one of the greatest mysteries of biology is how two groups of animals become genetically incompatible. It is possible to imagine that two groups of animals become separated in space and lose the ability to breed with each other for a long time, gradually adapt to different environmental factors until they lose physical ability to mate even living at the same territory. Development of new species without physical isolation is much more difficult to explain because of free exchange of genetic information between individuals. Even more difficult to comprehend is the fact that changing only one gene may be sufficient to create new biological species.

A gene called Prdm6 was found long time ago as a gene involved in recombination, the process of crossing chromosomes and exchanging DNA regions between paternal and maternal chromosomes in the gonads. The process takes place only during maturation of reproductive cells – spermatozoids and oocytes. The DNA shuffling is the reason why each organism is unique. So far, DNA recombination was not associated with the creation of new species. Scientists found that the protein Prdm6 has several so-called Zn-fingers that are encoded by short DNA repeats called satellite DNA. As satellite DNA is located in hot-spots of DNA recombination, it is frequently mutated and repaired. As the result, Prdm6 protein gets more or less repeats of its Zn-fingers. It appears that the chromosomes that have different variants of the gene cannot properly pair and exchange genetic information during gametogenesis. All animal species have homologous Prdm6 genes. Certain lines of laboratory mice that express different variants of Prdm6 protein cannot produce fertile offspring. Scientists found that different populations of humans also produce Prdm6 proteins with different number of Zn-fingers. It is conceivable that people with certain variants of Prdm6 proteins may not produce fertile children and may develop into a new human species. This process will require selective pressure, either natural or artificial, and many years to develop true new Homo species.

Objective:
Explain the processes involved in cloning and producing transgenic animals

Genetic modification
Genetic modification is the change of the genes of a living organism such as a plant or animal using modern techniques of biotechnology. DNA sequencing of entire genomes has been instrumental in the development of new genetically modified animals.

Purpose of genetic modification of animals
The main purposes of using genetic modification of animals are:

improving food-producing animals and agricultural plants
Development of new of plants and animals through natural selection and evolution is a slow process that takes millions of years. Ancient people learned to improve the speed through artificial selection. As the demand for food increases with world’s population growing, genetic modification of animals and plants became the most efficient way of increasing agricultural production. Genetically modified animals and plants developed in a matter of a few decades produce more and better milk, meat, fiber, they became more resistant to diseases and droughts.

development of treatments for human disease
With genetic modification of animals, production of certain important human proteins such as insulin has become a reality. Scientists have seen success with the use of some animal tissues, bones, and joints in humans. Research continues in the field of skin and organ tissue transplantations. Pigs are commonly used in this research because of their similarities to humans. Pigs producing ‘humanized’ skin, for example, can be used as a source for skin restoration in humans. Animals such as mice are genetically modified to help understanding and developing treatments for human and animal diseases.

production of pharmaceuticals
Genetic engineering has allowed production of certain hormones (insulin, human growth hormone, bovine and porcine somatotropin and other). Current research has shown the possibility of genetically modifying sheep or cattle to produce human proteins in their milk.

Benefits
Genetic modification of animals has shown several benefits. These include increased resistance to disease and parasites, increased productivity and improved hardiness to weather factors. Other benefits involve animal products, such as increased yields of meat, eggs, and milk.

Cloning animals
There are two main types of animal cloning: reproductive cloning and cloning through recombinant DNA technology

Reproductive cloning is a common process very well known for creating an exact genetic match of an animal. In 1996, Dolly the sheep was produced by reproductive cloning and was the first animal to be cloned from adult DNA. Since Dolly, advancements have been made in the process of cloning, and several other animals have been cloned. The reproductive cloning process begins with the transfer of genetic material from the nucleus of a donor adult cell to an egg whose nucleus has been removed. The egg is stimulated with chemicals or electrical current to promote cell division. As the cloned embryo divides in a test tube and reaches a suitable developmental stage, it is transplanted into a female host. The female carries the cloned embryo until birth.

Recombinant DNA (rDNA) technology is the process that occurs when fragments of DNA from two different species are joined in vitro to form a single DNA molecule. Usually, the DNA from one species is incorporated in a plasmid that is a circular DNA replicating independently on the bacterial genomic DNA. A plasmid is then amplified inside the bacteria, isolated and inserted into the genome of embryonic stem (ES) cells to be altered, allowing the DNA of two different organisms to be combined in a single cell. Then the cell is injected into an embryo at early stage of development and the embryo is then implanted in foster mother uterus to produce a chimeric transgenic animal.

Transgenic animals
A transgenic animal is an animal that has incorporated a foreign gene into its cells. The animal can pass this transgene (altered gene) on to its offspring. Every cell within the transgenic animal contains a copy of this transgene. Several different methods can be used to produce transgenic animals.

Microinjection is the most common technique used to produce transgenic animals. Injecting DNA into a cell using a fine-diameter glass needle and a microscope constitutes microinjection. During this operation, the chosen gene from the same or a different species is directly microinjected into the ovum. The injected DNA integrates randomly with nuclear DNA and its expression is possible only when the foreign DNA is attached to a suitable promoter DNA sequence. There are many examples where different types of animal cells have been microinjected and successfully transferred.

Once a manipulated fertilized ovum develops to a specific embryonic phase, it is transferred to the oviduct of a recipient female. The embryo will develop just as a normal embryo and is typically carried full term.

Marker gene is a gene that helps easily identify animals which successfully incorporated transgene. With the use of marker genes, it is possible not only to determine whether a transgenic animal has received the desired DNA but also whether the genes in the DNA are being expressed. The genetic markers help identifying the location of incorporated DNA in the host genome. The expression of a marker gene can be visualised with staining selected tissues or whole embryos. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) followed by gel electrophoresis is a technique of choice due to its speed and sensitivity.

Improving domestic animals
Currently the U.S. Meat Animal Research Center (USMARC) has developed DNA markers to identify all cattle in the United States. This method allows improved animal traceability and verification of disease sources. DNA testing also allows producers to base their management and selection process on genetic potential of identified animals.

DNA testing can determine the presence of certain traits and proteins. A common method used in the beef cattle industry involves the presence of the tenderness or marbling genes. This information allows producers to enhance the production of tender meat and meat with optimal marbling. It also allows producers to produce a consistent product.

Xenotransplantation
Xenotransplantation is the transfer of living cells, tissues, or whole organs from one species to another. People who need a kidney for transplantation often chose to use a pig kidney even if that organ was obtained from a genetically engineered pig.

Summary:
With the new technology of genome sequencing and mapping, genetic modification holds the potential for improvements in livestock. The main purposes for using genetic modification of animals are increased production of food-producing animals, treatments for human disease, and production of pharmaceuticals.

Did you know?
1. Identical twins are clones that occurred naturally.
2. Many animal cloning technologies are used for clinical reproductive procedures.
3. The process of cloning in the lab is a very complex procedure.

Checking what you have learned
1. What are the main purposes of genetic modification in animals?
2. What is a transgenic animal?
3. What are the steps involved in cloning an animal through reproductive cloning?
4. What are the steps involved in producing a transgenic animal?
5. How are marker genes used?

In order to say a word or a sentence, human brain must first receive either external trigger (such as a sound, taste, smell or visual signal that is recognized by our five organs of sense) or internal trigger such as a thought. Human brain can generate a thought based on its own sensory experiences of the past. Then the brain generates an emotion, then an idea, then it selects certain words that are relevant to the idea, and, finally, the mind arranges the words into a sequence that follows the rules of grammar. After this process is complete, the brain sends nerve impulses to the muscles of tongue, lips and larynx that set in motion a sound producing mechanism that converts thoughts into speech. Pronunciation of tongue-twisters requires especially good coordination of all these systems. The complexity of the process suggests that multiple genes affect the process of speech formation.

British scientists became interested in what genes are responsible for the speech formation and have made quite an interesting discovery. The researchers noticed that the gene Foxp2, which is located on the seventh human chromosome, is mutated in several members of one family. Protein FOXP2 encoded by Foxp2 gene is a transcription factor that controls the activity of other genes. One of the deficiencies associated with this mutation was impaired speech related to inability to control the movements of the tongue and lips. In addition, these people were not able to understand and apply certain rules of grammar. This gene has a direct impact not only on physical aspects of speech such as movements of the lips, tongue and larynx but also it affects brain ability to learn and apply grammar rules. Several years ago, it was demonstrated that mutation of this gene in birds also disrupted their singing ability. These birds could not learn songs from the adult birds.

To elucidate its function, the researchers created a similar mutation in mice. The expectations of scientists have been confirmed. The mutation foxp2 gene in mice affected not only the development of vocal organs at embryonic stages but also affected the synaptic plasticity of the adult mice. Scientists went further and substituted endogenous mouse gene foxp2 with human homologous gene Foxp2. The resulting mice produced sounds that are not typical for mice. What is still unclear to the researches is what language they spoke…